The African American Civil Rights Movement

The African American Civil Rights Movement (1950s-1960s) was a pivotal period in U.S. history aimed at ending racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans, primarily in the southern United States. The movement sought to secure equal rights under the law, particularly through the application of the 14th and 15th Amendments, which guaranteed citizenship and voting rights.

Learning Objective

In studying “The African American Civil Rights Movement” for AP World History: Modern, you should learn to identify the key events, leaders, and organizations that shaped the movement, such as Martin Luther King Jr., Rosa Parks, and the NAACP. Analyze the strategies of nonviolent protest, legal challenges, and grassroots activism used to combat segregation and racial discrimination. Evaluate the role of landmark legislation, such as the Civil Rights Act and Voting Rights Act, in advancing equality. Additionally, explore the broader social, political, and cultural impacts of the movement on American society and its influence on other global civil rights movements.

Major Phases of the Movement

1. Early 20th Century Developments:
   • The NAACP (1909): The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People was founded to challenge racial injustice through legal means. Early victories included cases that fought against lynching and disenfranchisement.
   • Harlem Renaissance (1920s): This cultural movement highlighted the intellectual and artistic achievements of African Americans, helping to change perceptions and elevate the fight for civil rights.
2. Legal Battles and Early Victories (1940s-1950s):
   • Brown v. Board of Education (1954): The Supreme Court decision that declared segregation in public schools unconstitutional was a watershed moment. It overturned the “separate but equal” doctrine established by Plessy v. Ferguson (1896).
   • Desegregation of the Armed Forces (1948): President Truman’s executive order to desegregate the U.S. military marked an early success for civil rights.
3. The Modern Civil Rights Movement (1950s-1960s):
   • Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956): Sparked by Rosa Parks’ refusal to give up her bus seat, this boycott, led by Martin Luther King Jr., lasted over a year and led to a Supreme Court ruling that segregation on public buses was unconstitutional.
   • Martin Luther King Jr. and Non-Violent Resistance: King emerged as the leading figure of the movement, advocating for peaceful protests and civil disobedience based on the principles of Mahatma Gandhi.
   • Sit-ins and Freedom Rides (1960s): These direct-action protests, often led by college students, challenged segregation in restaurants, transportation, and other public spaces.
   • March on Washington (1963): This massive protest in Washington D.C. culminated in King’s iconic “I Have a Dream” speech, calling for racial equality and an end to segregation.
4. Legislative Milestones:
   • Civil Rights Act of 1964: This landmark legislation outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. It also ended segregation in public places and banned employment discrimination.
   • Voting Rights Act of 1965: This act eliminated barriers to voting for African Americans, such as literacy tests and poll taxes, and gave federal oversight in states where voter suppression was prevalent.
   • Fair Housing Act of 1968: Prohibited discrimination in the sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, religion, national origin, or gender.
5. The Role of Black Power and Militant Movements:
   • By the late 1960s, dissatisfaction with the pace of change led to the rise of more radical movements, such as the Black Panthers, which advocated for self-defense and economic justice for African Americans.
   • Malcolm X: A key figure in the more militant wing of the movement, Malcolm X promoted black nationalism and self-reliance, challenging the non-violent approach of leaders like Martin Luther King Jr.

Global Impact

The Civil Rights Movement had far-reaching effects beyond the U.S.:

• Inspiration for Anti-Colonial Movements: The global struggle against imperialism and colonialism, particularly in Africa and Asia, paralleled the U.S. Civil Rights Movement. African leaders like Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana and Nelson Mandela of South Africa drew inspiration from the tactics and successes of African American activists.
• Influence on Human Rights Movements: The movement helped shape international debates on human rights, leading to increased pressure on countries worldwide to improve race relations and civil liberties. It also played a role in U.N. discussions about racial equality.
• Cold War Context: The Civil Rights Movement occurred during the Cold War, and racial segregation was an international embarrassment for the U.S., which portrayed itself as a leader of the “free world.” The movement’s successes helped the U.S. improve its global image during the ideological battle with the Soviet Union.

Continuing Struggles and Legacy

The continuing struggles and legacy of the African American Civil Rights Movement reflect the ongoing battle for racial equality and justice in the United States and its impact on global human rights movements. While the movement achieved landmark victories through legislation like the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, many of the underlying issues of racial inequality persist today. While the movement achieved significant legal and social victories, racial inequality and injustice continued in various forms. Issues such as systemic racism, police brutality, and economic disparity remain central to modern civil rights discussions. The movement laid the foundation for ongoing struggles for racial justice, including the Black Lives Matter movement of the 21st century.

Examples

Example 1: Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956)

This boycott began after Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her bus seat to a white man in Montgomery, Alabama. Organized by local leaders including Martin Luther King Jr., the boycott lasted over a year and led to a Supreme Court decision declaring that segregation on public buses was unconstitutional. It marked one of the first major victories for the movement and highlighted the power of peaceful protest and grassroots activism.

Example 2: Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

This landmark Supreme Court case challenged the legality of racial segregation in public schools. The Court’s decision overturned the “separate but equal” doctrine established in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), ruling that segregation in schools was inherently unequal and violated the 14th Amendment. This case was pivotal in the desegregation of public education across the United States, though it faced significant resistance in the South.

Example 3: March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom (1963)

One of the largest civil rights rallies in U.S. history, this event brought over 250,000 people to Washington, D.C., to advocate for civil and economic rights for African Americans. It was here that Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his famous “I Have a Dream” speech, calling for racial equality and justice. The march is credited with helping to build momentum for the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

Example 4: Freedom Rides (1961)

Organized by the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), the Freedom Rides were a series of bus trips through the Southern U.S. to challenge segregation in interstate bus terminals. The riders, both black and white, faced violent attacks and arrests, but their courage brought national attention to the violent resistance to desegregation in the South. The rides eventually led to the enforcement of federal desegregation laws in public transportation.

Example 5: Selma to Montgomery Marches (1965)

These three marches aimed to highlight the struggles African Americans faced in registering to vote in the South. The first march, known as “Bloody Sunday,” saw peaceful protesters attacked by state troopers, sparking national outrage. The marches led to the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which outlawed discriminatory voting practices such as literacy tests and allowed federal oversight of voter registration in states with histories of racial discrimination.

MCQs

Question 1:

Which event is widely regarded as the start of the modern Civil Rights Movement?
A) The March on Washington
B) The Selma to Montgomery Marches
C) The Montgomery Bus Boycott
D) The Freedom Rides

Answer: C) The Montgomery Bus Boycott
Explanation: The Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956) is considered one of the earliest mass protests that ignited the modern Civil Rights Movement. It began after Rosa Parks refused to give up her bus seat to a white passenger, leading to her arrest. In response, African American leaders organized a boycott of the Montgomery bus system, which lasted over a year and resulted in a Supreme Court ruling that segregation on public buses was unconstitutional. This event also brought Martin Luther King Jr. to prominence as a civil rights leader and demonstrated the power of nonviolent protest in achieving social change.

Question 2:

Which Supreme Court case ended legal segregation in public schools in the United States?
A) Plessy v. Ferguson
B) Brown v. Board of Education
C) Shelby County v. Holder
D) Roe v. Wade

Answer: B) Brown v. Board of Education
Explanation: The landmark Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education (1954) declared that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, overturning the “separate but equal” doctrine established by Plessy v. Ferguson (1896). The Court ruled that segregation in education created inherent inequality, violating the 14th Amendment’s Equal Protection Clause. This case was a pivotal moment in the Civil Rights Movement, leading to the gradual desegregation of public schools, though it faced resistance in many Southern states.

Question 3:

What was the primary goal of the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom?
A) To end segregation in schools
B) To advocate for civil and economic rights for African Americans
C) To protest police brutality
D) To demand voting rights for African Americans

Answer: B) To advocate for civil and economic rights for African Americans
Explanation: The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom in 1963 brought together over 250,000 people in Washington, D.C., to demand civil and economic rights for African Americans. One of the key goals was to draw attention to racial inequality in employment and advocate for an end to racial discrimination. This event is also famous for Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech, in which he called for racial equality and justice. The march helped build momentum for the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.